1. Freud S. Mourning and melancholia. London, England: 1917. pp. 243–248. Standard edition. [Google Scholar]
2. Neimeyer R, Currier JM. Grief therapy: Evidence of efficacy and emerging directions. submitted for publication. [Google Scholar]
3. Bonanno GA, Moskowitz JT, Papa A, Folkman S. Resilience to loss in bereaved spouses, bereaved parents, and bereaved gay men. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2005;88(5):827–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
4. Bonanno GA, Wortman CB, Nesse RM. Prospective patterns of resilience and maladjustment during widowhood. Psychol Aging. 2004;19(2):260–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Bonanno GA, Wortman CB, Lehman DR, et al. Resilience to loss and chronic grief: A prospective study from preloss to 18-months postloss. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2002;83(5):1150–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
6. DeVaul RA, Zisook S. Psychiatry: Unresolved grief. Clinical considerations. Postgrad Med. 1976;59(5):267–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
7. DeVaul RA, Zisook S, Faschingbauer TR. Clinical aspects of grief and bereavement. Prim Care. 1979;6(2):391–402. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
8. Zisook S, Shuchter S, Schuckit M. Factors in the persistence of unresolved grief among psychiatric outpatients. Psychosomatics. 1985;26(6):497–9. 503. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
9. Dopson CC, Harper MB. Unresolved grief in the family. Am Fam Physician. 1983;27(1):207–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
10. Parkes CM. Bereavement and mental illness. 1. A clinical study of the grief of bereaved psychiatric patients. Br J Med Psychol. 1965;38:1–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. Horowitz MJ, Wilner N, Marmar C, Krupnick J. Pathological grief and the activation of latent self-images. Am J Psychiatry. 1980;137(10):1157–2. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
12. Horowitz M, Stinson C, Fridhandler B, et al. Pathological grief: An intensive case study. Psychiatry. 1993;56(4):356–74. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Horowitz MJ, Bonanno GA, Holen A. Pathological grief: Diagnosis and explanation. Psychosom Med. 1993;55(3):260–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14. Marwit SJ. Dsm-iii-r, grief reactions, and a call for revision. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 1991;22(1):75–79. [Google Scholar]
15. Hartz GW. Adult grief and its interface with mood disorder: Proposal of a new diagnosis of complicated bereavement. Compr Psychiatry. 1986;27(1):60–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16. Horowitz MJ, Siegel B, Holen A, et al. Diagnostic criteria for complicated grief disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(7):904–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Prigerson HG, Horowitz MJ, Jacobs SC, et al. Prolonged grief disorder: Psychometric validation of criteria proposed for dsm-v and icd-11. PLoS Med. 2009;6(8):e1000121. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Prigerson HG, Jacobs SC. Diagnostic criteria for traumatic grief: A rationale, consensus criteria, and preliminary empirical test. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press; 2001. [Google Scholar]
19. Boelen PA, van den Bout J. Complicated grief, depression, and anxiety as distinct postloss syndromes: A confirmatory factor analysis study. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(11):2175–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Johannesson KB, Lundin T, Hultman CM, et al. The effect of traumatic bereavement on tsunami-exposed survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2009;22(6):497–504. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Burnett P, Middleton W, Raphael B, Martinek N. Measuring core bereavement phenomena. Psychological Medicine. 1997;27(1):49–57. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Momartin S, Silove D, Manicavasagar V, Steel Z. Complicated grief in bosnian refugees: Associations with posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. Compr Psychiatry. 2004;45(6):475–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Middleton W, Raphael B, Burnett P, Martinek N. A longitudinal study comparing bereavement phenomena in recently bereaved spouses, adult children and parents. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 1998;32(2):235–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Stein DJ, Phillips KA, Bolton D, et al. What is a mental/psychiatric disorder? From dsm-iv to dsm-v. Psychol Med. 2010:1–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Prigerson HG, Bierhals AJ, Kasl SV, et al. Traumatic grief as a risk factor for mental and physical morbidity. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(5):616–23. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Chen JH, Bierhals AJ, Prigerson HG, et al. Gender differences in the effects of bereavement-related psychological distress in health outcomes. Psychol Med. 1999;29(2):367–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. Silverman GK, Jacobs SC, Kasl SV, et al. Quality of life impairments associated with diagnostic criteria for traumatic grief. Psychol Med. 2000;30(4):857–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28. Boelen PA, Prigerson HG. The influence of symptoms of prolonged grief disorder, depression, and anxiety on quality of life among bereaved adults: A prospective study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007;257(8):444–52. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Ott CH, Lueger RJ, Kelber ST, Prigerson HG. Spousal bereavement in older adults: Common, resilient, and chronic grief with defining characteristics. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195(4):332–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30. Lannen PK, Wolfe J, Prigerson HG, et al. Unresolved grief in a national sample of bereaved parents: Impaired mental and physical health 4 to 9 years later. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(36):5870–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
31. Simon NM, Shear KM, Thompson EH, et al. The prevalence and correlates of psychiatric comorbidity in individuals with complicated grief. Compr Psychiatry. 2007;48(5):395–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
32. Simon NM, Pollack MH, Fischmann D, et al. Complicated grief and its correlates in patients with bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(9):1105–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Shear K, Monk T, Houck P, et al. An attachment-based model of complicated grief including the role of avoidance. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34. Melhem NM, Moritz G, Walker M, et al. Phenomenology and correlates of complicated grief in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(4):493–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Cruz M, Scott J, Houck P, et al. Clinical presentation and treatment outcome of african americans with complicated grief. Psychiatr Serv. 2007;58(5):700–2. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
36. Zuckoff A, Shear K, Frank E, et al. Treating complicated grief and substance use disorders: A pilot study. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2006;30(3):205–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37. Shear MK, Jackson CT, Essock SM, et al. Screening for complicated grief among project liberty service recipients 18 months after september 11, 2001. Psychiatr Serv. 2006;57(9):1291–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
38. Bonanno GA, Neria Y, Mancini A, et al. Is there more to complicated grief than depression and posttraumatic stress disorder? A test of incremental validity. J Abnorm Psychol. 2007;116(2):342–51. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39. Maytal G, Zalta AK, Thompson E, et al. Complicated grief and impaired sleep in patients with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2007;9(8):913–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Germain A, Caroff K, Buysse DJ, Shear MK. Sleep quality in complicated grief. J Trauma Stress. 2005;18(4):343–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. McDermott OD, Prigerson HG, Reynolds CF, 3rd, et al. Sleep in the wake of complicated grief symptoms: An exploratory study. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;41(6):710–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Hardison HG, Neimeyer RA, Lichstein KL. Insomnia and complicated grief symptoms in bereaved college students. Behav Sleep Med. 2005;3(2):99–111. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. Monk TH, Houck PR, Shear MK. The daily life of complicated grief patients--what gets missed,what gets added? Death Stud. 2006;30(1):77–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. Mitchell AM, Kim Y, Prigerson HG, Mortimer MK. Complicated grief and suicidal ideation in adult survivors of suicide. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2005;35(5):498–506. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
45. Szanto K, Prigerson H, Houck P, et al. Suicidal ideation in elderly bereaved: The role of complicated grief. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 1997;27(2):194–207. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
46. Prigerson HG, Bridge J, Maciejewski PK, et al. Influence of traumatic grief on suicidal ideation among young adults. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(12):1994–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47. Latham AE, Prigerson HG. Suicidality and bereavement: Complicated grief as psychiatric disorder presenting greatest risk for suicidality. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2004;34(4):350–62. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. Szanto K, Shear MK, Houck PR, et al. Indirect self-destructive behavior and overt suicidality in patients with complicated grief. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(2):233–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49. Neria Y, Gross R, Litz B, et al. Prevalence and psychological correlates of complicated grief among bereaved adults 2.5–3. 5 years after september 11th attacks. J Trauma Stress. 2007;20(3):251–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Ghaffari-Nejad A, Ahmadi-Mousavi M, Gandomkar M, Reihani-Kermani H. The prevalence of complicated grief among bam earthquake survivors in iran. Arch Iran Med. 2007;10(4):525–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51. Mancini A, Prati G, Black S. Self-worth mediates the effects of violent loss on ptsd symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress. In press. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
52. Currier JM, Holland JM, Neimeyer RA. Sense-making, grief, and the experience of violent loss: Toward a mediational model. Death Stud. 2006;30(5):403–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53. Mitchell AM, Kim Y, Prigerson HG, Mortimer-Stephens M. Complicated grief in survivors of suicide. Crisis. 2004;25(1):12–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
54. Vessier-Batchen M, Douglas D. Coping and complicated grief in survivors of homicide and suicide decedents. J Forensic Nurs. 2006;2(1):25–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55. Melhem NM, Day N, Shear MK, et al. Traumatic grief among adolescents exposed to a peer's suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2004;161(8):1411–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
56. Keesee NJ, Currier JM, Neimeyer RA. Predictors of grief following the death of one's child: The contribution of finding meaning. J Clin Psychol. 2008;64(10):1145–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
57. Meert KL, Thurston CS, Thomas R. Parental coping and bereavement outcome after the death of a child in the pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2001;2(4):324–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
58. Murphy SA. The loss of a child: Sudden death and extended illness perspectives. In: Stroebe M, Hansson RO, Schut H, Stroebe W, editors. Handbook of bereavement research and practice: Advances in theory and intervention. Washington, D.C: American Psyhcological Association; 2008. [Google Scholar]
59. Anderson WG, Arnold RM, Angus DC, Bryce CL. Posttraumatic stress and complicated grief in family members of patients in the intensive care unit. J Gen Intern Med. 2008;23(11):1871–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
60. Siegel MD, Hayes E, Vanderwerker LC, et al. Psychiatric illness in the next of kin of patients who die in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(6):1722–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
61. Chiu YW, Huang CT, Yin SM, et al. Determinants of complicated grief in caregivers who cared for terminal cancer patients. Support Care Cancer. 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62. Tomarken A, Holland J, Schachter S, et al. Factors of complicated grief pre-death in caregivers of cancer patients. Psychooncology. 2008;17(2):105–11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
63. Pfefferbaum B, Call JA, Lensgraf SJ, et al. Traumatic grief in a convenience sample of victims seeking support services after a terrorist incident. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2001;13(1):19–24. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
64. Wijngaards-de Meij L, Stroebe M, Schut H, et al. Patterns of attachment and parents' adjustment to the death of their child. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2007;33(4):537–48. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
65. Dodd P, Guerin S, McEvoy J, et al. A study of complicated grief symptoms in people with intellectual disabilities. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2008;52(Pt 5):415–25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
66. Ogrodniczuk JS, Piper WE. Recognizing complicated grief in clinical practice. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(10):713. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
67. Ogrodniczuk JS, Piper WE, Joyce AS, et al. Differentiating symptoms of complicated grief and depression among psychiatric outpatients. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(2):87–93. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
68. De Groot M, de Keijser J, Neeleman J, et al. Cognitive behaviour therapy to prevent complicated grief among relatives and spouses bereaved by suicide: Cluster randomised controlled trial. Bmj. 2007;334(7601):994. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
69. Dillen L, Fontaine JR, Verhofstadt-Deneve L. Confirming the distinctiveness of complicated grief from depression and anxiety among adolescents. Death Stud. 2009;33(5):437–61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
70. Goldsmith B, Morrison RS, Vanderwerker LC, Prigerson HG. Elevated rates of prolonged grief disorder in african americans. Death Stud. 2008;32(4):352–65. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
71. Forstmeier S, Maercker A. Comparison of two diagnostic systems for complicated grief. J Affect Disord. 2007;99(1–3):203–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
72. Kersting A, Kroker K, Horstmann J, et al. Complicated grief in patients with unipolar depression. J Affect Disord. 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
73. Kersting A, Kroker K, Steinhard J, et al. Complicated grief after traumatic loss: A 14-month follow up study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007;257(8):437–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
74. Langner R, Maercker A. Complicated grief as a stress response disorder: Evaluating diagnostic criteria in a german sample. J Psychosom Res. 2005;58(3):235–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
75. Parkes CM. Symposium on complicated grief. OMEGA. 2005–2006;52(1):1–7. [Google Scholar]
76. Stroebe M, Schut H. Complicated grief: A conceptual analysis of the field. OMEGA. 2005–2006;52(1):53–70. [Google Scholar]
77. Morina N, Rudari V, Bleichhardt G, Prigerson HG. Prolonged grief disorder, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder among bereaved kosovar civilian war survivors: A preliminary investigation. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2010;56(3):288–97. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
78. Prigerson H, Ahmed I, Silverman GK, et al. Rates and risks of complicated grief among psychiatric clinic patients in karachi, pakistan. Death Stud. 2002;26(10):781–92. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
79. Laor N, Wolmer L, Kora M, et al. Posttraumatic, dissociative and grief symptoms in turkish children exposed to the 1999 earthquakes. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2002;190(12):824–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
80. Schaal S, Elbert T, Neuner F. Prolonged grief disorder and depression in widows due to the rwandan genocide. Omega (Westport) 2009;59(3):203–19. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
81. Bonanno GA, Papa A, Lalande K, et al. Grief processing and deliberate grief avoidance: A prospective comparison of bereaved spouses and parents in the united states and the people's republic of china. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73(1):86–98. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
82. Ito M. Complicated grief among general japanese population: Validity and reliability of brief grief questionnaire. Presentation World Congress of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies; Boston, Mass. 2010. [Google Scholar]
83. Nakajima S, Shirai A, Maki S, et al. Mental health of the families of crime victims and factors related to their recovery. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. 2009;111(4):423–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
84. Fujisawa D, Miyashita M, Nakajima S, et al. Prevalence and determinants of complicated grief in general population. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
85. Stroebe M, Boelen PA, van den Hout M, et al. Ruminative coping as avoidance : A reinterpretation of its function in adjustment to bereavement. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
86. Boelen PA, Van den Bout J, Van den Hout MA. The role of negative interpretations of grief reactions in emotional problems after bereavement. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2003;34(3–4):225–38. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
87. Boelen PA, van den Bout J, van den Hout MA. Negative cognitions and avoidance in emotional problems after bereavement: A prospective study. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(11):1657–72. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
88. Melhem NM, Rosales C, Karageorge J, et al. Comorbidity of axis i disorders in patients with traumatic grief. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(11):884–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
89. Ott CH. The impact of complicated grief on mental and physical health at various points in the bereavement process. Death Stud. 2003;27(3):249–72. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
90. Johnson JG, Zhang B, Greer JA, Prigerson HG. Parental control, partner dependency, and complicated grief among widowed adults in the community. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195(1):26–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
91. Vanderwerker LC, Jacobs SC, Parkes CM, Prigerson HG. An exploration of associations between separation anxiety in childhood and complicated grief in later life. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2006;194(2):121–3. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
92. Prigerson HG, Shear MK, Bierhals AJ, et al. Case histories of traumatic grief. Omega. 1997;35(1):9–24. [Google Scholar]
93. Prigerson HG, Shear MK, Frank E, et al. Traumatic grief: A case of loss-induced trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(7):1003–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
94. Van Doorn C, Kasl SV, Beery LC, et al. The influence of marital quality and attachment styles on traumatic grief and depressive symptoms. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186(9):566–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
95. Schulz R, Boerner K, Shear K, et al. Predictors of complicated grief among dementia caregivers: A prospective study of bereavement. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;14(8):650–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
96. Boerner K, Schulz R, Horowitz A. Positive aspects of caregiving and adaptation to bereavement. Psychol Aging. 2004;19(4):668–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
97. Boelen PA, Van den Bout J, Van den Hout MA. The role of cognitive variables in psychological functioning after the death of a first degree relative. Behav Res Ther. 2003;41(10):1123–36. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
98. Piper WE, McCallum M, Joyce AS, et al. Patient personality and time-limited group psychotherapy for complicated grief. Int J Group Psychother. 2001;51(4):525–52. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
99. Robinson T, Marwit SJ. An investigation of the relationship of personality, coping, and grief intensity among bereaved mothers. Death Stud. 2006;30(7):677–96. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
100. O'Connor MF, Wellisch DK, Stanton AL, et al. Craving love? Enduring grief activates brain's reward center. Neuroimage. 2008;42(2):969–72. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
101. Kersting A, Kroker K, Horstmann J, et al. Association of mao-a variant with complicated grief in major depression. Neuropsychobiology. 2007;56(4):191–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
102. Maccallum F, Bryant RA. Impaired autobiographical memory in complicated grief. Behav Res Ther. 2009 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
103. Maccallum F, Bryant RA. Self-defining memories in complicated grief. Behav Res Ther. 2008;46(12):1311–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
104. Golden AM, Dalgleish T, Mackintosh B. Levels of specificity of autobiographical memories and of biographical memories of the deceased in bereaved individuals with and without complicated grief. J Abnorm Psychol. 2007;116(4):786–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
105. Maccallum F, Bryant RA. Social problem solving in complicated grief. Br J Clin Psychol. 2010 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
106. Pasternak RE, Reynolds CF, 3rd, Schlernitzauer M, et al. Acute open-trial nortriptyline therapy of bereavement-related depression in late life. J Clin Psychiatry. 1991;52(7):307–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
107. Zisook S, Shuchter SR, Pedrelli P, et al. Bupropion sustained release for bereavement: Results of an open trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(4):227–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
108. Reynolds CF, 3rd, Miller MD, Pasternak RE, et al. Treatment of bereavement-related major depressive episodes in later life: A controlled study of acute and continuation treatment with nortriptyline and interpersonal psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(2):202–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
109. Simon NM, Thompson EH, Pollack MH, Shear MK. Complicated grief: A case series using escitalopram. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(11):1760–1. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
110. Shear MK, Frank E, Foa E, et al. Traumatic grief treatment: A pilot study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(9):1506–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
111. Shear K, Frank E, Houck PR, Reynolds CF., 3rd Treatment of complicated grief: A randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2005;293(21):2601–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
112. Clark LA, Watson D. Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. J Abnorm Psychol. 1991;100(3):316–36. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
113. Watson D, Weber K, Assenheimer JS, et al. Testing a tripartite model: I. Evaluating the convergent and discriminant validity of anxiety and depression symptom scales. J Abnorm Psychol. 1995;104(1):3–14. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
114. Watson D, Clark LA, Weber K, et al. Testing a tripartite model: Ii. Exploring the symptom structure of anxiety and depression in student, adult, and patient samples. J Abnorm Psychol. 1995;104(1):15–25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
115. Viederman M. Grief: Normal and pathological variants. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(1):1–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
116. Prigerson HG, Frank E, Kasl SV, et al. Complicated grief and bereavement-related depression as distinct disorders: Preliminary empirical validation in elderly bereaved spouses. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(1):22–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
117. Prigerson HG, Shear MK, Newsom JT, et al. Anxiety among widowed elders: Is it distinct from depression and grief? Anxiety. 1996;2(1):1–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
118. Prigerson HG, Bierhals AJ, Kasl SV, et al. Complicated grief as a disorder distinct from bereavement-related depression and anxiety: A replication study. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(11):1484–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
119. O'Connor M, Lasgaard M, Shevlin M, Guldin MB. A confirmatory factor analysis of combined models of the harvard trauma questionnaire and the inventory of complicated grief-revised: Are we measuring complicated grief or posttraumatic stress? J Anxiety Disord. 2010;24(7):672–679. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
120. Deci EL, La Guardia JG, Moller AC, et al. On the benefits of giving as well as receiving autonomy support: Mutuality in close friendships. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2006;32(3):313–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
121. Hofer MA. Relationships as regulators: A psychobiologic perspective on bereavement. Psychosom Med. 1984;46(3):183–97. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
122. Hofer MA. On the nature and consequences of early loss. Psychosom Med. 1996;58(6):570–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
123. Shear K, Shair H. Attachment, loss, and complicated grief. Dev Psychobiol. 2005;47(3):253–67. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
124. Boelen PA, van den Bout J. Positive thinking in bereavement: Is it related to depression, anxiety, or grief symptomatology? Psychol Rep. 2002;91(3 Pt 1):857–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
125. Johnson JG, First MB, Block S, et al. Stigmatization and receptivity to mental health services among recently bereaved adults. Death Stud. 2009;33(8):691–711. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
126. Prigerson HG, Maciejewski PK, Reynolds CF, 3rd, et al. Inventory of complicated grief: A scale to measure maladaptive symptoms of loss. Psychiatry Res. 1995;59(1–2):65–79. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
127. Zhang B, El-Jawahri A, Prigerson HG. Update on bereavement research: Evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of complicated bereavement. J Palliat Med. 2006;9(5):1188–203. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
128. Prigerson HG. A call for sound empirical testing and evaluation of criteria for complicated grief proposed for dsm-v. OMEGA. 2005–2006;52(1):9–19. [Google Scholar]
129. Jacobs S, Mazure C, Prigerson H. Diagnostic criteria for traumatic grief. Death Stud. 2000;24(3):185–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
130. Prigerson HG, Shear MK, Jacobs SC, et al. Consensus criteria for traumatic grief. A preliminary empirical test. Br J Psychiatry. 1999;174:67–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
131. Nolen-Hoeksema S, McBride A, Larson J. Rumination and psychological distress among bereaved partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1997;72(4):855–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
132. Lerner A. Diagnostic criteria in neurology. Totowa: Humana Press; 2006. [Google Scholar]
133. Bowlby J. Loss: Sadness and depression. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1980. [Google Scholar]
134. Parkes CM. Bereavement in adult life. Bmj. 1998;316(7134):856–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
135. Engel GL. Is grief a disease? A challenge for medical research. Psychosom Med. 1961;23:18–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
136. Zisook S, Shear K. Grief and bereavement: What psychiatrists need to know. World Psychiatry. 2009;8(2):67–74. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
137. Kendler KS, Myers J, Zisook S. Does bereavement-related major depression differ from major depression associated with other stressful life events? Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165(11):1449–55. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
138. Zisook S, Shear K, Kendler KS. Validity of the bereavement exclusion criterion for the diagnosis of major depressive episode. World Psychiatry. 2007;6(2):38–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
139. Zisook S, Kendler KS. Is bereavement-related depression different than non-bereavement-related depression? Psychol Med. 2007;37(6):779–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
140. Zisook S, Paulus M, Shuchter SR, Judd LL. The many faces of depression following spousal bereavement. J Affect Disord. 1997;45(1–2):85–94. discussion 94–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
141. Zisook S, Chentsova-Dutton Y, Shuchter SR. Ptsd following bereavement. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 1998;10(4):157–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
142. Zisook S, Shuchter SR. Early psychological reaction to the stress of widowhood. Psychiatry. 1991;54(4):320–33. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
143. Zisook S, Schneider D, Shuchter SR. Anxiety and bereavement. Psychiatr Med. 1990;8(2):83–96. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
144. Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G, et al. Major depression or uncomplicated bereavement? A follow-up of youth exposed to suicide. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(2):231–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
145. Melhem NM, Walker M, Moritz G, Brent DA. Antecedents and sequelae of sudden parental death in offspring and surviving caregivers. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2008;162(5):403–10. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
146. Brent D, Melhem N, Donohoe MB, Walker M. The incidence and course of depression in bereaved youth 21 months after the loss of a parent to suicide, accident, or sudden natural death. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(7):786–94. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
147. Fagiolini A, Shear MK, Reynolds C, et al. Escitalopram for bereavement-related depression: A pilot study. Boca Raton Florida. City: 2006. [Google Scholar]
148. Hensley PL, Slonimski CK, Uhlenhuth EH, Clayton PJ. Escitalopram: An open-label study of bereavement-related depression and grief. J Affect Disord. 2009;113(1–2):142–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
149. Ajdacic-Gross V, Ring M, Gadola E, et al. Suicide after bereavement: An overlooked problem. Psychol Med. 2008;38(5):673–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
150. Stroebe M, Stroebe W, Abakoumkin G. The broken heart: Suicidal ideation in bereavement. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(11):2178–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
151. Goldsmith B. Reducing suicide: A national imperative. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2002. [Google Scholar]
152. Mann JJ, Apter A, Bertolote J, et al. Suicide prevention strategies: A systematic review. Jama. 2005;294(16):2064–74. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
153. Simon GE, Savarino J. Suicide attempts among patients starting depression treatment with medications or psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(7):1029–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
154. Parkes CM. Effects of bereavement on physical and mental health--a study of the medical records of widows. Br Med J. 1964;2(5404):274–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
155. Parkes CM. The first year of bereavement. A longitudinal study of the reaction of london widows to the death of their husbands. Psychiatry. 1970;33(4):444–67. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
156. Parkes CM. Bereavement studies of grief in adult life. New York: International Universities Press, Inc; 1972. [Google Scholar]
157. Engel GL. Grief and grieving. Am J Nurs. 1964;64:93–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
158. Glass RM. Is grief a disease? Sometimes Jama. 2005;293(21):2658–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
FAQs
What is the DSM-5 criteria for complicated grief? ›
DSM V PGD requires the occurrence of a persistent and pervasive grief response characterized by persistent longing or yearning and/or preoccupation with the deceased accompanied by at least 3 of 8 additional symptoms that include disbelief, intense emotional pain, feeling of identity confusion, avoidance of reminders ...
Does DSM-5 have complicated bereavement TR? ›Prolonged grief disorder is the newest disorder to be added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It is included in the text revision of DSM-5 (DSM-5-TR), which was released in March 2022.
What does the DSM-5 say about bereavement? ›Most people grieving the death of a loved one do not develop a major depressive episode. Nevertheless, DSM-5 makes it clear that grief and major depression may exist “side by side.” Indeed, the death of a loved one is a common “trigger” for a major depressive episode — even as the bereaved person continues to grieve.
Is there a diagnosis for complicated grief? ›Complicated grief may be considered when the intensity of grief has not decreased in the months after your loved one's death. Some mental health professionals diagnose complicated grief when grieving continues to be intense, persistent and debilitating beyond 12 months.
What are the four types of complicated grief? ›According to the ELNEC, there are four types of complicated grief, including chronic grief, delayed grief, exaggerated grief, and masked grief.
What is the difference between traumatic grief and complicated grief? ›When traumatic events lead to long-lasting effects on your emotions, cognition, and behavior, it is indicative of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). But the loss of a loved one is also a traumatic event that causes similar disruptions. When they become prolonged, it is classified as complicated bereavement.
Why was bereavement removed from the DSM-5? ›The bereavement exclusion was eliminated from the DSM-5 for two main reasons: 1) there have never been any adequately controlled, clinical studies showing that major depressive syndromes following bereavement differ in nature, course, or outcome from depression of equal severity in any other context—or from MDD ...
Why did the DSM remove bereavement? ›To prevent the denial of diagnosis and the consideration of sometimes much needed care, even after bereavement or other significant losses, the DSM-5 no longer contains the bereavement exclusion.
Is complicated grief a disability? ›However, for those with Prolonged Grief Disorder those feelings are not eased with time. For some, Prolonged Grief Disorder will be disabling and can make them eligible for Social Security Disability.
What is the new grief diagnosis DSM? ›In the case of prolonged grief disorder, the duration of the person's bereavement exceeds expected social, cultural or religious norms and the symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder. Prolonged grief disorder is the newest disorder to be added to the DSM.
What is the difference between DSM-5 and DSM-5 TR? ›
DSM-5-TR is a text revision of DSM-5 and includes revised text and new references, clarifications to diagnostic criteria, and updates to ICD-10-CM codes since DSM-5 was published in 2013. It features a new disorder, prolonged grief disorder, as well as ICD-10-CM codes for suicidal behavior and nonsuicidal self-injury.
What is the psychological response to bereavement? ›Grief reactions lead to complex somatic and psychological symptoms. Feelings: The person who experiences a loss may have a range of feelings, including shock, numbness, sadness, denial, anger, guilt, helplessness, depression, and yearning. A person may cry for no reason.
What is an example of complicated grief? ›Symptoms of persistent and acute grief, which might include a yearning for the person who has died, feelings of loneliness, preoccupying thoughts about the person who has died. At least two of any symptoms of shock, anger, difficulty trusting other people, inability to accept death.
Is complicated grief a form of PTSD? ›Complicated grief is a significant health concern for older adults, resulting in significant psychological and physical morbidity. Elements of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often present in individuals with complicated grief.
What are the 3 C's of grief? ›Practice the three C's
As you build a plan, consider the “three Cs”: choose, connect, communicate. Choose: Choose what's best for you. Even during dark bouts of grief, you still possess the dignity of choice. “Grief often brings the sense of loss of control,” said Julie.
It almost always includes strong feelings of yearning, longing and sadness along with anxiety, bitterness, anger, remorse, guilt and/or shame. Thoughts are mostly focused on the person who died and it can be difficult to concentrate on anything else.
What is the difference between grief and bereavement? ›Researchers have suggested that the term bereavement be used to refer to the fact of the loss; the term grief should then be used to describe the emotional, cognitive, functional and behavioral responses to the death.
What is another name for complicated grief? ›| Prolonged grief disorder | |
|---|---|
| Other names | Complicated grief, Persistant complex bereavement disorder |
| Specialty | Psychiatry, psychology |
| Symptoms | Prolonged grief, Depression, emotional pain, emotional numbness, loneliness, identity disturbance, difficulty in managing interpersonal relationships |
Prolonged grief disorder was added to Section 2, trauma- and stressor-related disorders chapter. DSM-5 included a category of persistent complex bereavement disorder as a “condition for further study” in Section 3 of the manual.
What controversial move was made in the DSM-5 regarding bereavement and major depression? ›However, with the elimination of the bereavement exclusion in DSM-5, the diagnosis of MDD can be now assigned to bereaved individuals as early as two weeks after any loss without consideration of context or relationship (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
What was eliminated from the DSM-5 as a diagnosis? ›
(DSM-5) include eliminating the multi-axial system; removing the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF score); reorganizing the classification of the disorders; and changing how disorders that result from a general medical condition are conceptualized.
What conditions were removed from the DSM-5? ›Gone are Somatization Disorder (DSM-IV-TR 300.81), Hypochondriasis (DSM-IV-TR 300.7), Pain Disorder (DSM-IV-TR 307.80 & 307.89), and Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder/Somatoform Disorder NOS (DSM-IV-TR 300.82). These have replaced by the overlaying Somatic Symptom Disorder (ICD-9: 300.82; ICD-10: F45.
What was an argument for removing the bereavement exclusion? ›One of the major developments in the argument for eliminating the exclusion, offered by Zisook and Shear (2009) and later by Pies and Zisook (2010a, 2010c), was the claim that intense grief and major depressive disorder are distinct and distinguishable conditions.
What is the bereavement exclusion in DSM IV? ›in DSM–IV–TR, a statement that rules out, as symptoms of a major depressive episode, an individual's responses to the death of a loved one (e.g., sadness) unless they last longer than 2 months after the death, markedly impair function, or are accompanied by such symptoms as suicidal ideation.
What is not included in the DSM-5 TR? ›DSM-5-TR, like DSM-5, is a manual for assessment and diagnosis of mental disorders and does not include information or guidelines for treatment of any disorder.
Where can I read the DSM-5 TR? ›Psychiatry.org - DSM.
What is a criticism of the DSM-5 TR? ›Criticisms of the DSM
This suggests that the manual may overly medicalize conditions, implying that even relatively normal or non-serious behavior and mood patterns require treatment, often in the form of medication.
The five stages – denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance – are often talked about as if they happen in order, moving from one stage to the other. You might hear people say things like 'Oh I've moved on from denial and now I think I'm entering the angry stage'. But this isn't often the case.
What is the most common response to unresolved grief? ›In most cases, people with unresolved grief deny or avoid it. They hold onto their loved one and refuse to accept the loss, hindering the healing process.
What is the most common grief response? ›The most frequent immediate response following death, regardless of whether or not the loss was anticipated, is shock, numbness, and a sense of disbelief. Subjectively, survivors may feel like they are wrapped in a cocoon or blanket; to others, they may look as though they are holding up well.
What are 6 symptoms of complicated grieving? ›
- Intense sorrow, pain and rumination over the loss of your loved one.
- Focus on little else but your loved one's death.
- Extreme focus on reminders of the loved one or excessive avoidance of reminders.
- Intense and persistent longing or pining for the deceased.
- Problems accepting the death.
- Numbness or detachment.
The intervention includes seven core procedures: (1) psychoeducation about CG and CGT; (2) self-assessment and self-regulation; (3) aspirational goals work; (4) rebuilding connections; (5) revisiting the story of the death; (6) revisiting the world changed by the loss; and (7) addressing memories and continuing bonds.
What are the predictors of complicated grief? ›Predictors of complicated grief prior to the death include previous loss, exposure to trauma, a previous psychiatric history, attachment style, and the relationship to the deceased.
What are characteristics of complicated grief? ›Emotional pain: A person may have intense feelings of sadness, loneliness, and yearning. Sometimes this emotional pain may affect their physical health. A 2018 paper notes that complicated grief is associated with high blood pressure, headaches, and lower quality of life.
Where in the DSM-5 is prolonged grief disorder? ›Prolonged grief disorder was added to Section 2, trauma- and stressor-related disorders chapter. DSM-5 included a category of persistent complex bereavement disorder as a “condition for further study” in Section 3 of the manual.
Is there a new diagnosis called prolonged grief disorder in the DSM-5? ›“This is what we call prolonged grief disorder.” PGD can be diagnosed no sooner than one year after the death of a loved one, and it is defined by a daily, intense yearning for the deceased or a preoccupation with thoughts or memories of them.
What is the diagnosis for complicated grief ICD-10? ›ICD-10 code F43. 81 for Prolonged grief disorder is a medical classification as listed by WHO under the range - Mental, Behavioral and Neurodevelopmental disorders .
Is complicated grief a mental disorder? ›Despite not being a clinical disorder, complicated grief is recognized as a serious condition by mental health professionals.
Is bereavement a DSM diagnosis? ›Definition of Uncomplicated Bereavement DSM-5
If someone's disabling grief persists for longer than 6 months to a year, as it does in about 10% of cases, it might instead be considered an adjustment disorder or prolonged grief disorder (PGD), also known as complicated grief.
The most common ones include prolonged grief disorder (in the following referred to as prolonged grief) and depression (1). Studies have shown that prolonged grief and depression share some similarities, but that they also have some key differences (2, 3).
What are the 3 types of complicated grief? ›
Three different types of complicated grief are posited: chronic grief, which is intense, prolonged, or both; delayed grief; and absent grief.
What are the diagnosis codes for grief? ›“So ICD-10 has grief as a Z code, as one of the 'factors influencing health status and contact with health services,' that is, Z63. 4, Bereavement (Uncomplicated),” Dr. Moffic explained.
What is complex bereavement disorder ICD-11? ›To meet PGDICD-11 criteria one needs to experience persistent and pervasive longing for the deceased and/or persistent and pervasive cognitive preoccupation with the deceased, combined with any of 10 additional grief reactions assumed indicative of intense emotional pain for at least six months after bereavement.
What is complicated grief called in the ICD-11? ›What is prolonged grief disorder? In the ICD-11, prolonged grief disorder is described as: History of bereavement following the death of a partner, parent, child, or other person close to the bereaved.